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Spectroscopic techniques are non-destructive, rapid, and often cost-effective tools for detecting cheese adulteration. Cheese is one of the foods most frequently reported as adulterated or misrepresented, particularly when including misrepresentation of PGO or PDI production methods or origin.

This review (open access) references 104 studies and describes the range of vibrational, nuclear magnetic, and mass spectrometric techniques which have been applied for cheese authentication, including Near-Infrared (NIR), Mid-Infrared (MIR), Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR), Raman, and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy MS-based methods . Emerging non-invasive sensor-based technologies such as electronic nose (E-nose) systems have also been explored in dairy product monitoring and are covered in the review.

The authors consider that each technique offers distinct advantages based on its operational principle and application context. NIR spectroscopy, for example, has demonstrated utility in detecting water addition, milk source substitution, and fat adulteration in a variety of cheese matrices with minimal sample preparation FTIR and ATR-FTIR are valuable for functional group detection and surface compositional analysis, offering rapid screening capabilities . Raman and its variants, such as Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) and Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS), provide molecular vibrational fingerprints useful for identifying foreign substances and analyzing samples through packaging.  ¹H NMR spectroscopy has gained prominence due to its high-resolution metabolomic profiling capabilities and its ability to differentiate PDO cheeses from non-authentic counterparts based on lipid and aqueous phase biomarkers .

Advanced mass spectrometry-based techniques, including LC-MS/MS and MALDI-TOF-MS, have also been effectively utilized for the detection of protein-based adulterants and species-specific peptides in complex cheese matrices, enabling quantification at trace levels.  Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) and other isotope-based techniques have proven crucial in verifying geographical and botanical origin by assessing stable isotope compositions such as δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and δ³⁴S

The authors aim to provide stakeholders—including researchers, quality control laboratories, and regulatory agencies—with an informed perspective on the strengths and limitations of each technique, thereby supporting the development of more robust authentication frameworks within the dairy industry.

Photo by Andra C Taylor Jr on Unsplash

Unauthorized GM (UGM) refers to those GM crops or products that have not received approval in a particular country..

DNA-based methods are preferred for testing of raw or partially processed food products.  More heavily processed food can be more of an analytical challenge; DNA methods are still applicable provided the quality of DNA enables amplification despite being hampered by the processing procedures or presence of inhibitors or due to complexity in composition in terms of ingredients.

This review (purchase required) focused on possible approaches for adhering to the regulatory requirements while verifying UGM in processed food products. Technical challenges and approaches for extracting purified DNA and necessary quality checks are described. The article covers amplification as well as sequencing-based methods which can be applied to check for presence of UGM ingredients amongst a complex mix of other ingredients. The authors discuss the comparative assessment of these methods in the context of regulatory testing requirements and availability of information of transgenic DNA.

Photo by Kseniya Nekrasova on Unsplash

Imprint Analytics GmbH have published a paper in the Journal of Food Science and Technology on the analysis of coconut waters for authenticity testing. Coconut water is becoming more prevalent as a healthy, low carb alternative to other beverages and is defined as a juice by the European Fruit Juice Association (AIJN).

The study analysed 30 authentic coconut waters, that were extracted from coconuts in the lab, and 24 commercial coconut waters purchased from shops to investigate the detection of added C-4 plant sugars to the drinks.

Find the study here.